“should not expect promotion” Bar-Joseph and Kruglanski, “Intelligence Failure and Need for Cognitive Closure,” 75–99.
“outside the organization” Uri Bar-Joseph, “Intelligence Failure and Success in the War of Yom Kippur,” unpublished paper.
“before war broke out” Abraham Rabinovich, “Three Years Too Late, Golda Meir Understood How War Could Have Been Avoided,” The Times of Israel, September 12, 2013.
Israelis were killed or wounded Zeev Schiff, A History of the Israeli Army, 1874 to the Present (New York: Macmillan, 1985).
“generation was nearly lost” Richard S. Lazarus, Fifty Years of the Research and Theory of RS Lazarus: An Analysis of Historical and Perennial Issues (New York: Psychology Press, 2013).
“Even a quarter century later” Kumaraswamy, Revisiting the Yom Kippur War.
good at choosing goals For my understanding of General Electric, I am indebted to Joseph L. Bower and Jay Dial, “Jack Welch: General Electric’s Revolutionary,” Harvard Business School case study no. 394-065, October 1993, revised April 1994; Francis Aguilar and Thomas W. Malnight, “General Electric Co: Preparing for the 1990s,” Harvard Business School case study no. 9-390, December 20, 1989; Francis J. Aguilar, R. Hamermesh, and Caroline Brainard, “General Electric: Reg Jones and Jack Welch,” Harvard Business School case study no. 9-391-144, June 29, 1991; Kirsten Lungberg, “General Electric and the National Broadcasting Company: A Clash of Cultures,” Harvard University John F. Kennedy School of Government case study, 1989; Nitin Nohria, Anthony J. Mayo, and Mark Benson, “General Electric’s 20th Century CEOs,” Harvard Business School case study, December 2005; Jack Welch and John A. Byrne, Jack: Straight from the Gut (New York: Warner, 2003); Larry Greiner, “Steve Kerr and His Years with Jack Welch at GE,” Journal of Management Inquiry 11, no. 4 (2002): 343–50; Stratford Sherman, “The Mind of Jack Welch,” Fortune, March 27, 1989; Marilyn Harris et al., “Can Jack Welch Reinvent GE?” BusinessWeek, June 30, 1986; Mark Potts, “GE Chief Hopes to Shape Agile Giant,” Los Angeles Times, June 1, 1988; Noel Tichy and Ram Charan, “Speed Simplicity and Self-Confidence: An Interview with Jack Welch,” Harvard Business Review, September 1989; Ronald Grover and Mark Landler, “NBC Is No Longer a Feather in GE’s Cap,” BusinessWeek, June 2, 1991; Harry Bernstein, “The Two Faces of GE’s ‘Welchism,’?” Los Angeles Times, January 12, 1988; “Jack Welch Reinvents General Electric. Again,” The Economist, March 30, 1991; L. J. Dans, “They Call Him ‘Neutron,’?” Business Month, March 1988; Richard Ellsworth and Michael Kraft, “Jack Welch at GE: 1981–1989,” Claremont Graduate School, Peter F. Drucker and Masatoshi Ito Graduate School of Management case study; Peter Petre, “Jack Welch: The Man Who Brought GE to Life,” Fortune, January 5, 1987; Peter Petre, “What Welch Has Wrought at GE,” Fortune, July 7, 1986; Stephen W. Quickel, “Welch on Welch,” Financial World, April 3, 1990; Monica Roman, “Big Changes Are Galvanizing General Electric,” BusinessWeek, December 18, 1989; Thomas Stewart, “GE Keeps Those Ideas Coming,” Fortune, August 12, 1991.
“became the work ‘contract’?” Nitin Nohria, Anthony J. Mayo, and Mark Benson, “General Electric’s 20th Century CEOs,” Harvard Business Review, December 19, 2005, revised April 2011; John Cunningham Wood and Michael C. Wood, Peter F. Drucker: Critical Evaluations in Business and Management, vol. 1 (London: Routledge, 2005).
best way to set goals Gary P. Latham, Terence R. Mitchell, and Dennis L. Dossett, “Importance of Participative Goal Setting and Anticipated Rewards on Goal Difficulty and Job Performance,” Journal of Applied Psychology 63, no. 2 (1978): 163; Gary P. Latham and Gerard H. Seijts, “The Effects of Proximal and Distal Goals on Performance on a Moderately Complex Task,” Journal of Organizational Behavior 20, no. 4 (1999): 421–29; Gary P. Latham and J. James Baldes, “The ‘Practical Significance’ of Locke’s Theory of Goal Setting,” Journal of Applied Psychology 60, no. 1 (1975): 122; Gary P. Latham and Craig C. Pinder, “Work Motivation Theory and Research at the Dawn of the Twenty-First Century,” Annual Review of Psychology 56 (2005): 485–516; Edwin A. Locke and Gary P. Latham, “Building a Practically Useful Theory of Goal Setting and Task Motivation: A Thirty-Five-Year Odyssey,” American Psychologist 57, no. 9 (2002): 705; A. Bandura, “Self-Regulation of Motivation and Action Through Internal Standards and Goal Systems,” in Goal Concepts in Personality and Social Psychology, ed. L. A. Pervin (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1989), 19–85; Travor C. Brown and Gary P. Latham, “The Effects of Goal Setting and Self-Instruction Training on the Performance of Unionized Employees,” Relations Industrielles/Industrial Relations 55, no. 1 (2000): 80–95; Judith F. Bryan and Edwin A. Locke, “Goal Setting as a Means of Increasing Motivation,” Journal of Applied Psychology 51, no. 3 (1967): 274; Scott B. Button, John E. Mathieu, and Dennis M. Zajac, “Goal Orientation in Organizational Research: A Conceptual and Empirical Foundation,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 67, no. 1 (1996): 26–48; Dennis L. Dossett, Gary P. Latham, and Terence R. Mitchell, “Effects of Assigned Versus Participatively Set Goals, Knowledge of Results, and Individual Differences on Employee Behavior When Goal Difficulty Is Held Constant,” Journal of Applied Psychology 64, no. 3 (1979): 291; Elaine S. Elliott and Carol S. Dweck, “Goals: An Approach to Motivation and Achievement,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54, no. 1 (1988): 5; Judith M. Harackiewicz et al., “Predictors and Consequences of Achievement Goals in the College Classroom: Maintaining Interest and Making the Grade,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 73, no. 6 (1997): 1284; Howard J. Klein et al., “Goal Commitment and the Goal-Setting Process: Conceptual Clarification and Empirical Synthesis,” Journal of Applied Psychology 84, no. 6 (1999): 885; Gary P. Latham and Herbert A. Marshall, “The Effects of Self-Set, Participatively Set, and Assigned Goals on the Performance of Government Employees,” Personnel Psychology 35, no. 2 (June 1982): 399–404; Gary P. Latham, Terence R. Mitchell, and Dennis L. Dossett, “Importance of Participative Goal Setting and Anticipated Rewards on Goal Difficulty and Job Performance,” Journal of Applied Psychology 63, no. 2 (1978): 163; Gary P. Latham and Lise M. Saari, “The Effects of Holding Goal Difficulty Constant on Assigned and Participatively Set Goals,” Academy of Management Journal 22, no. 1 (1979): 163–68; Don VandeWalle, William L. Cron, and John W. Slocum, Jr., “The Role of Goal Orientation Following Performance Feedback,” Journal of Applied Psychology 86, no. 4 (2001): 629; Edwin A. Locke and Gary P. Latham, eds., New Developments in Goal Setting and Task Performance (London: Routledge, 2013).
how fast they produced text Gary P. Latham and Gary A. Yukl, “Assigned Versus Participative Goal Setting with Educated and Uneducated Woods Workers,” Journal of Applied Psychology 60, no. 3 (1975): 299.
“Making yourself break a goal” In an email responding to fact-checking questions, Latham wrote that achieving goals also requires access to the necessary resources and feedback on goal progress. “For long-term/distal goals, proximal/sub goals should be set. Sub goals do two things: maintain motivation for attaining the distal goal as the attainment of one sub goal leads to the desire to attain another sub goal. Second, feedback from pursuit of each sub goal yields information as to whether you are on-or off-track.”