There is another form of ritual cannibalism whose origins are fascinating and whose details may strike many readers as being uncomfortably close to home.
Descriptions of cannibalism in the Bible fall into two distinct categories. In the Old Testament, the behavior was undertaken by the starving inhabitants of the besieged cities of Jerusalem and Samaria. There’s no physical evidence that these events actually occurred (although that doesn’t mean that they didn’t), but since we’ll be covering the topic of survival cannibalism in an upcoming chapter, we won’t be stopping here.
The second type of cannibalism is found in the New Testament and relates to the literal or symbolic consumption of Jesus Christ’s body and blood during the celebration of the Eucharist—the Christian commemoration of the Last Supper. Considering the paramount importance this ceremony has for all Christians, and in light of differing belief systems that exist throughout Christianity, it’s no surprise that there are disagreements concerning the interpretation of the Eucharist. One aspect shared by the vast majority of Christians, however, is a lack of awareness that this particular form of ritual cannibalism led to the torture and death of thousands of innocent people.
The following are two of the most famous passages from the New Testament.
Now as they were eating, Jesus took bread, and when he had said the blessing he broke it and gave it to the disciples. “Take it and eat,” he said, “this is my body.” Then he took a cup, and when he had given thanks he handed it to them saying, “Drink from this, all of you, for this is my blood, the blood of the covenant, poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins.”
— Matthew 26:26–28
Jesus replied to them: In all truth I tell you, if you do not eat the flesh of the Son of man and drink his blood, you have no life in you. Anyone who does eat my flesh and drink my blood has eternal life, and I shall raise that person up on the last day. For my flesh is real food and my blood is real drink. Whoever eats my flesh and drinks my blood lives in me and I live in that person.
— John 6:53–56
One way to interpret these passages is that Jesus was using a metaphor to convey a concept to his followers. It was certainly something he had done before, since surely even the dimmest of Jesus’s supporters hadn’t taken him literally when he said, “I am the gate” (John 10:9) or “I am the true vine” (John 15:1). In fact, Jesus’s lesson to his disciples during the Last Supper is one of those seemingly rare instances where even evangelical Christians appear to bend their own rules regarding literal translation. For example, the same fundamentalists who believe that Jonah was swallowed by a fish and survived for three days within its belly also believe that the wine and host they consume during Holy Communion are only symbols of the body and blood of Jesus Christ. Strangely, though, the leaders of several major Christian religions (including Catholicism) do not support this host-and-wine-as-symbols interpretation, at least not technically. Here’s how that disagreement came about.
In light of developments resulting from the first four Crusades (e.g., the capture of Constantinople and large parts of the Byzantine Empire), Pope Innocent III summoned over 400 bishops and many lesser ecumenical leaders to attend the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215. Representative rulers from Europe and the Levant were also invited (the latter in reference to an area now made up of Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, the Palestinian territories, Syria, and Iraq). During the meeting, there was apparently little discussion between the Pope and the council attendees. Instead, the pontiff presented a list of 71 papal decrees, which served notice to all present that the Pope’s powers, as well as those of the Roman Catholic Church, had just been expanded. Among proclamations forbidding the founding of new religious orders, strengthening papal primacy, and regulating and restricting Jewish communities, was a decree that spelled out the concept of transubstantiation.