Though I initially tarried with the direction of the book, the story found me as it so often does. I was searching the archives of the New York Times, looking for some interesting pieces about Ellis Island, when I came across a series of articles about the demand for female inspectors as well as the fraudulent activities of the shipping companies and also those companies providing food for the immigrants. I read about coercion and sexual misconduct. It is in these archives where I discovered the chief officer of the registry, John Legerhilder. And that is where my story began.
I based the antagonist in the story, John Lambert, on this John Legerhilder, described in my research as “dictatorial and cruel” and “resentful in his bearing toward those over whom he cannot legitimately exercise control.” I made the decision to create a fictional representation of the inspector rather than use his real name because I needed to manipulate facts to suit the story (for example, he was already married to a German American woman in real life by the time this story took place in 1902, and I needed him to pursue Alma Brauer). Legerhilder was infamous among the staff both for being physically aggressive with immigrant women and for harassing them about their sexual habits during the inspection process. Interpreters often edited Legerhilder’s words or refused to translate for him because of this behavior. Legerhilder was also known to swindle immigrants in conjunction with ship captains and other contracted workers at the immigration station.
Other true-to-life people who became characters in the book include Commissioner Thomas Fitchie and Commissioner William Williams, whose names I preserved. Mrs. Keller, the stalwart matron supervisor, is based on a real person, as is Amy Terrine, the matron who slapped the French immigrant. Margaret Ellis, director of the WCTU mentioned in a couple of the fictional newspaper articles within the story, was, in fact, the director of this union. She was successful in persuading Commissioner Williams to hire five female inspectors at Ellis Island, but after only three months, the women were fired. Williams’s reason for firing them is quoted in the New York Times, in which he said, “Men are better able to detect these ‘kinds of immigrants than women.’” The “kinds of immigrants” he is referring to are those considered indigent or dangerous.
Though the newspaper articles in The Next Ship Home are my own creation, they are based on those authentic headlines and information I found in the before-mentioned New York Times archives dated from 1901 to 1903. I drew upon many other sources for my novel as well, from the Ellis Island Oral History Project interviews to nonfiction tomes about the immigrant experience, to a vast number of other books that documented the history of New York City and the operation of Ellis Island through the years. I am indebted to the wonderful Tenement Museum on Orchard Street in the East Village, which has terrific historical walking tours dedicated to the immigrant experience. Their staff of knowledgeable historians answered many of my questions and directed me to invaluable resources. I had a bit of fun, too, checking out the Transit Museum in Brooklyn, New York, as well as their museum gift shop at Grand Central Station where many a great research book can be found. Lastly, I returned to the New York Public Library several times to dig through their incredible archives.
Other Notes
In 1902, there was still a multitude of regional dialects spoken in Italy, among them Sicilian, which would have been Francesca’s native tongue. The Italian we know today didn’t really become widespread until World War I. For simplification, I have often referred to Francesca’s heritage or her language in general as Italian.
In a later scene in the book, Commissioner William Williams hammers a plaque onto the wall stating the rules and expectations for his staff. I have preserved its wording exactly as it was originally written.
The first immigration station in New York City was located in Battery Park and was named Castle Clinton or Fort Clinton. Originally, it served as a fortification to prevent the British invasion of 1812. Later, the structure changed names to Castle Garden, which I refer to in the book, and it has since changed names back to the original. This building served as an immigration center for thirty-five years until the station at Ellis Island was built in 1892. Castle Clinton was converted to an aquarium in the late nineteenth century until right around WWII. Today, it is a national monument, and you may purchase tickets for the Ellis Island Ferry at a nearby kiosk.
Ellis Island is one of the most iconic buildings in the world. From its opening date in 1892 to its closing in 1954, twelve million immigrants passed through its halls. Even today, an estimated fifty percent of all Americans can trace at least one ancestor who entered the country through the immigration center. In 1902, the year this book is set, 493,262 immigrants were admitted to the United States. The leading backgrounds included Italian, Polish, Jewish, Scandinavian, German, Slovak, and Croat. The busiest year of admittance on record is 1907, in which more than one million immigrants arrived on American shores through Ellis Island.
The Statue of Liberty–Ellis Island Foundation, Inc. has preserved over two thousand oral interviews that document the history of the station as well as the immigration experience to the United States. They are still collecting these oral histories today. If you would like to share family stories about Ellis Island, contact the foundation at [email protected].
Reading Group Guide
Discuss Francesca’s reasons for leaving Italy. What circumstances would cause you to leave your home?
Francesca is warned that some immigrant women have been funneled into workhouses or servitude by scam artists. How does the immigration process make people more vulnerable? What protections would you suggest to prevent these types of exploitation?
Describe Alma’s mother, Johanna. How does her own security compete with her children’s needs? Do you think she could have stood up to Robert more?
Francesca and Maria are first denied entry to the U.S. because they have no male relatives to meet them and no employment arranged. What was the reasoning behind these limiting policies? How do they compare to modern immigration requirements?
Alma’s first instinct is to report all types of corruption she sees—from the vendor giving incorrect change to matrons resorting to physical violence. Still, her coworkers repeatedly convince her not to say anything. What persuaded her to keep quiet? Would you have done something different in her place?
As she confesses her sins, Francesca hopes that her God will understand her intentions. At the time of each “sin,” she feels she is making the only choice available to her. Do you think she acts immorally throughout the book? Why or why not?
Most of the Ellis Island staff disdains Commissioner Williams when he takes charge. Does he deserve their distrust? How do the opinions of Alma’s coworkers shape her interactions with the commissioner?